Acts 28 · Robertson's Word Pictures
1Then we knew (tote epegnomen). Second aorist (ingressive) active indicative of epiginosko. Then we recognized. See 27:39.
Was called (kaleita). Present passive indicative retained in indirect discourse.
Melita (Melite). Not Miletene as only B reads, a clerical error, but retained in the text of Westcott and Hort because of B. Page notes that the island was Malta as is shown from the name, the location, the presence of a ship from Alexandria bound for Rome wintering there (verse 11), and the mention of Syracuse as the next stop after leaving (verse 12).
2The barbarians (o barbaro). The Greeks called all men "barbarians" who did not speak Greek (Ro 1:14 ), not "barbarians" in our sense of rude and uncivilized, but simply "foreign folk." Diodorus Siculus (V. 12) says that it was a colony of the Phoenicians and so their language was Punic (Page). The word originally meant an uncouth repetition (barbar) not understood by others (1Co 14:11 ). In Col 3:11 Paul couples it with Scythian as certainly not Christian. These are (with verse 4 below) the only N.T. instances.
Showed us (pareichan). Imperfect active of parecho with -an instead of -on as eichan in Mr 8:7 (Robertson, Grammar, p. 339). It was their habit on this occasion, Luke means, they kept on showing.
No common kindness (ou ten tuchousan philanthropian). The old word philanthropia (philos, anthropos), love of mankind, occurs in the N.T. only here and Tit 3:4 (adverb in 27:3). See on 19:11 for this use of ou ten tuchousan, "not the kindness that happens every day." They were not "wreckers" to take advantage of the calamity.
They kindled a fire (apsantes puran). The only N.T. example and verse 3 of the old word pura (from pur, fire), a pile of burning fuel (sticks). First aorist active participle of apto, to set fire to, to kindle. Cf. anapto in Lu 12:49 .
Received us all (proselabonto pantas emas). Second aorist middle (indirect indicative of proslambano. They took us all to themselves (cf. Ac 18:26 ).
The present (ton ephestota). Second perfect active participle (intransitive) of ephistem, "the rain that stood upon them" (the pouring rain). Only in Luke and Paul in N.T.
3When Paul had gathered (sustrepsantos tou Paulou). Genitive absolute with first aorist active participle of sustrepho, old verb to twist or turn together or roll into a bundle. In N.T. only here and Mt 17:22 .
A bundle of sticks (phruganon t plethos). "Some multitude (or pile) of dry twigs" (phruganon from phrugo or phrusso, to dry. Only here in N.T.).
Laid (epithentos). So genitive absolute again with second aorist active participle of epitithem, to place upon. Few things show Paul to better advantage than this incident.
By reason of the heat (apo tes thermes). Old word, only here in N.T. Ablative case with apo (from the heat). The viper was in a state of torpor in the bundle of sticks. The heat wakened him.
A viper (echidna). The old word used by the Baptist of the Pharisees (Mt 3:7; Lu 3:7 ) and by Jesus also (Mt 12:34; 23:33 ). It is objected that there is little wood in the island today and no vipers, though Lewin as late as 1853 believes that he saw a viper near St. Paul's Bay. But the island now has 1,200 people to the square mile and snakes of any kind have a poor chance. The viper has also disappeared from Arran as the island became more frequented (Knowling). Ramsay thinks that the small constrictor (Coronella Austriaca) which still exists in the island may be the "viper," though it has no poison fangs, but clings and bites. The natives thought that it was a poisonous viper.
Fastened on his hand (kathepse tes cheiros autou). First aorist active indicative of kathapto, to fasten down on with the genitive case. Old verb, here only in N.T. Cf. Mr 16:18 .
4The beast (to therion). Diminutive of ther and so little beast. See on Mr 1:13 . Aristotle and the medical writers apply the word to venomous serpents, the viper in particular (Knowling), as Luke does here. Vincent calls attention to the curious history of our word "treacle" for molasses (Latin theriaca) from theriake, an antidote made from the flesh of vipers. Coverdale translates Jer 8:22 : "There is no more treacle in Gilead." Jeremy Taylor: "We kill the viper and make treacle of him."
Hanging from his hand (kremamenon ek tes cheiros autou). Vivid picture of the snake dangling from Paul's hand. Present middle participle of kremama, late form for kremannum, to hang up, to suspend (cf. Ga 3:13 ).
No doubt (pantos). Literally, By all means, old adverb. Cf. 21:22; Lu 4:23; 1Co 9:22 . Only by Luke and Paul in the N.T. "They knew that he was a prisoner being taken to Rome on some grave charge, and inferred that the charge was murder" (Page).
Though he hath escaped (diasothenta). First aorist passive participle of diasozo (same verb used in 24:43,44; 28:1 ), so-called concessive use of the participle (Robertson, Grammar, p. 1129).
Yet Justice (dike). An abstraction personified like the Latin Justitia (Page). The natives speak of Dike as a goddess, but we know nothing of such actual worship in Malta, though the Greeks worshipped abstractions as in Athens.
Hath not suffered (ouk eiasen). Did not suffer. They look on Paul as a doomed man as good as dead. These people thought that calamity was proof of guilt, poor philosophy and worse theology.
5Shook off (apotinaxas). First aorist active participle of apotinasso, to shake off. Rare word (Euripides, Galen, LXX). In N.T. only here and Lu 9:5 .
6But they expected (o de prosedokon). Imperfect active, were expecting, continued to expect.
That he would have swollen (auton mellein pimprastha). More exactly, "Expecting him to be about (or that he was about) to swell up." Pimprastha is present middle infinitive from pimprem, to blow, to burn, to inflame, to cause to swell. Pretho, to swell, seems connected and both use the aorist epresa. Our word "inflammation" likewise means a burning and a swelling. This verb is a common medical term used as Luke has it. It occurs here only in N.T.
Or fallen down dead suddenly (e katapiptein aphno nekron). Rather, "or was about to fall down dead suddenly." The two common results of a bite by a viper or other poisonous snake, both medical terms used by Luke.
But when they were long in expectation (ep polu de auton prosdokonton). Genitive absolute. "But while they were expecting for much time."
Nothing amiss come to him (meden atopon eis auton ginomenon). "Nothing out of place coming to him" (present middle participle). Meden the usual negative of the participle and the accusative case the object of theorounton (genitive absolute).
Changed their minds (metabalomeno). Aorist middle (direct) participle of metaballo, old verb to turn about or around, turning themselves about, changing their minds. Plato uses this very verb in middle voice for changing the mind.
That he was a god (auton eina theon). Accusative and infinitive in indirect discourse. At Lystra Paul was first received as a god (Mercury) and then they stoned him to kill him (Ac 14:11,19 ). So fickle is popular favour.
7To the chief man of the island (to proto tes nesou). An official title correct in Malta (Ramsay, St. Paul, p. 343). An inscription in Malta calls Prudens "Primate of the Maltese" (protos Melitaion). Here it is plainly a title and not the common use seen in 13:50; 25:2; 28:17 .
Publius (Poplio). This Greek name (praenomen) can be derived either from Popilius or Publius (cf. publichus for populichus from populus). Entertained us (exenisen emas). Paul and his companions (Luke and Aristarchus). Was Julius included? On xenizo see Ac 10:23 .
Courteously (philophronos). This old adverb from philophron (philos, phren, friendly mind) occurs here alone in the N.T. In a kindly or friendly manner, all the more so because of the original suspicion of Paul as a criminal.
8Lay (katakeistha). Common verb for the sick (Mr 1:30; Joh 5:6 ).
Sick (sunechomenon). "Held together." Common verb again for the sick as in Lu 4:38 .
Of fever (puretois). Instrumental case, and plural "fevers," medical term for intermittent attacks of fever (Demosthenes, Lucian, medical writers).
Dysentery (dusenterio). Instrumental case also. Late form of the older dusenteria and only here in N.T. Our very word dysentery. Another medical term of which Luke uses so many. Hippocrates often mentions these two diseases together.
Laying his hands on him healed him (epitheis tas cheiras auto iasato auton). Either like the laying on of hands in Jas 5:14 , the gift of healing (1Co 12:9f. ), or the tender interest of Jesus when he took hold of the hand of Peter's mother-in-law (Mr 1:31 ). Ramsay argues that iaoma is employed here of the miraculous healing by Paul while therapeuo is used of the cures by Luke the physician (verse 9). This is a general distinction and it is probably observed here, but in Lu 6:18 (which see) both verbs are employed of the healings by Jesus.
Came and were healed (proserchonto ka etherapeuonto). Imperfect middle and imperfect passive. A regular stream of patients came during these months. Luke had his share in the honours, "us" (emas), and no doubt his share in the cures.
With many honours (pollais timais). Instrumental case. The word was often applied to payment for professional services as we today speak of an honorarium.
They put on board (epethento). Second aorist middle indicative of epitithem, to put on. The idea of "on board" is merely suggested by anagomenois (when we sailed) "the things for our needs" (ta pros tas chreias).
11Which had wintered (parakecheimakot). Perfect active participle of paracheimazo, to pass the winter. Old verb, in N.T. only 27:12; 28:11; 1Co 16:6; Tit 3:12 . The locative case agreeing with ploio. Navigation in the Mediterranean usually opened up in February (always by March), spring beginning on Feb. 9 (Page).
Whose sign was the Twin Brothers (parasemo Dioskourois). The word parasemo can be either a substantive (as Revised Version has it) or an adjective "marked by the sign," examples of both uses common in ancient Greek. Dioskourois is in apposition with parasemo. The word means the twin sons (kouros or koros) of Zeus (Dios, genitive of Zeus) and Leda, viz., Castor and Pollux. The Attic used the dual, to Dioskoro. Castor and Pollux were the tutelary deities of sailors whose figures were painted one on each side of the prow of the ship. This sign was the name of the ship. So they start in another grain ship of Alexandria bound for Rome.
12Touching (katachthentes). First aorist passive participle of katago, to go down to land, just the opposite of anechthemen in verse 11 from anago, to go up to sea.
At Syracuse (eis Surakousas). The chief city of Sicily and eighty miles from Malta. Perhaps open weather and a southerly wind helped them across. Here it was that Alcibiades wrecked the power and glory of Athens. Why the ship spent three days we do not know.
13We made a circuit (perielthontes). Second aorist active of perierchoma, to go around, old verb, already in 19:13. See also Heb 11:37; 1Ti 5:13 . But Westcott and Hort read perielontes after Aleph B (from periaireo) as in 27:40, though here it could only mean casting loose, for which no other authority exists. At any rate the ship had to tack to reach Rhegium and was not able to make a straight course (enthudromeo, 16:11).
Rhegium (Region) is from regnum, to break off, the place where the land breaks off, the southern entrance to the straits of Messina.
A south wind sprang up (epigenomenou notou). Genitive absolute again, and for all the world like that fatal south wind in 27:13, but with no bad results this time, though the weather was plainly treacherous at this early season.
On the second day (deuteraio). This is the classical use of the predicate adjective, "We second day men" as in Lu 24:22; Joh 11:39; Php 3:5 instead of the adverb (Robertson, Grammar, p. 657).
To Puteoli (eis Potiolous). It was 182 miles from Rhegium and would require 26 hours (Page). It was eight miles northwest from Neapolis (Naples) and the chief port of Rome, the regular harbour for the Alexandrian ships from Rome. Portions of the great mole are said to be still visible.
14Where we found brethren (ou eurontes adelphous). Possibly from Alexandria, but, as Blass observes, it is no more strange to find "brethren" in Christ in Puteoli when Paul arrives than in Rome. There was a large Jewish quarter.
Seven days (emeras epta). Accusative of extent of time. Paul and his party remained so long at the urgent request of the brethren. He was still a prisoner, but clearly Julius was only too glad to show another courtesy to Paul to whom they all owed their lives. It was 130 miles by land from Puteoli to Rome over one of the great Roman roads.
And so we came to Rome (ka outos eis ten Romen elthamen). So at last. Luke is exultant as Page observes: Paulus Romae captivus: triumphus unicus. It is the climax of the book of Acts (19:21; 23:11 ), but not the close of Paul's career. Page rightly remarks that a new paragraph should begin with verse 15, for brethren came from Rome and this part of the journey is touched with the flavour of that incident. The great event is that Paul reached Rome, but not as he had once hoped (Ro 15:22-29 ).
15When they heard of us (akousantes ta per emon). How "they heard the things concerning us" we do not know. Good news had its way of travel even before the days of telegraph, telephone, daily papers. Possibly Julius had to send on special couriers with news of his arrival after the shipwreck. Possibly some of the brethren in Puteoli at once (beginning of the week) sent on news to the brethren in Rome. The church in Rome had long ago received Paul's letter from Corinth at the hands of Phoebe.
To meet us (eis apantesin emin). Idiomatic phrase, "for meeting with us" (associative instrumental case). Koine word apantesis from verb apantao, to meet, in N.T. only here; Mt 25:6; 1Ti 4:17 . Use after eis rather than infinitive like a translation Hebraism (Robertson, Grammar, p. 91).
As far as the Market of Appius (achr Appiou Phorou). The Forum of Appius, 90 miles from Puteoli, 40 from Rome, on the great Appian Way. The Censor Appius Claudius had constructed this part of the road, B.C. 312. Paul probably struck the Appian Way at Capua. Portions of this great stone highway are still in use. If one wishes to tread where Paul trod, he can do it here. Appii Forum had a bad reputation, the haunt of thieves, thugs, and swindlers. What would this motley crowd think of Paul chained to a soldier?
Three Taverns (Trion Tabernon). Genitive case after achr like Appiou Phorou. About 30 miles from Rome. Tres Tabernae.
Whom (ous). Two groups of the disciples came (one Gentile, one Jewish, Rackham thinks), one to Appii Forum, the other to Three Taverns. It was a joyous time and Julius would not interfere.
Took courage (elabe tharsos). The old substantive tharsos is here alone in the N.T. Jesus himself had exhorted Paul to be of good courage (tharse Ac 23:11 ) as he had done the disciples (Joh 16:33 ). Paul had passed through enough to cause depression, whether he was depressed or not, but he deeply appreciated this kindly sympathy.
16Paul was suffered to abide by himself (epetrape to Paulo menein kath' eauton). Second aorist passive of epitrepo, to permit or allow. Literally, "It was permitted to Paul to abide by himself." Some late documents (Textus Receptus) here add: "The centurion delivered the prisoners to the captain of the guard" (or the stratopedarch). This officer used to be considered Burrus who was Prefect of the Praetorian Guard A.D. 51-62. But it is by no means certain that Julius turned the prisoners over to this officer. It seems more likely that Julius would report to the captain of the Peregrini. If so, we may be sure that Julius would give a good report of Paul to this officer who would be kindly disposed and would allow Paul comparative freedom (living by himself, in his lodging, verse 23, his own hired house verse 30, though still chained to a soldier).
With the soldier that guarded him (sun to phulassont auton stratiote). Probably a new soldier every day or night, but always with this soldier chained to his right hand day and night. Now that Paul is in Rome what can he do for Christ while he awaits the outcome of his own appeal to Nero?
17Those that were the chief of the Jews (tous ontas ton Ioudaion protous). This use of protos for the leading men of a city or among the Jews we have already had in 13:50; 25:2; Lu 19:47 . Literally, "Those that were first among the Jews." The position of the participle ontas between the article and the adjective protous is regular (Robertson, Grammar, p. 777).
When they were come together (sunelthonton auton). Genitive absolute again. Paul could not go to the synagogue, as his custom was, being a bound prisoner. So he invited the Jewish leaders to come to his lodging and hear his explanation of his presence in Rome as a prisoner with an appeal to Caesar. He is anxious that they may understand that this appeal was forced upon him by Festus following Felix and lot because he has come to make an attack on the Jewish people. He was sure that false reports had come to Rome. These non-Christian Jews accepted Paul's invitation.
Nothing against (ouden enantion). Adjective here as in 26:9, not preposition as in 7:10; 8:32 . From en and antios (ant), face to face. Concessive participle poiesas as in verse 4 (diasothenta) which see.
Yet was I delivered prisoner from Jerusalem into the hands of the Romans (desmios ex Ierosolumon paredothen eis tas cheiras ton Romaion). This condensed statement does not explain how he "was delivered," for in fact the Jews were trying to kill him when Lysias rescued him from the mob ( 22:27-36). The Jews were responsible for his being in the hands of the Romans, though they had hoped to kill him first.
18When they had examined me (anakrinantes me). First aorist active participle of anakrino, the same verb used already in 24:8; 25:6,26 of the judicial examinations by Felix and Festus.
Desired (eboulonto). Imperfect middle of attempted action or picture of their real attitude. This is a correct statement as the words of both Felix and Festus show.
Because there was (dia to--uparchein). Accusative case with dia (causal use) with the articular infinitive, "Because of the being no cause of death in me" (en emo, in my case, aitia, usual word for crime or charge of crime).
19When the Jews spake against it (antilegonton ton Ioudaion). Genitive absolute again, antilegonton (antilego) common verb for speaking against as in 13:45. Clementer dicit (Bengel). "The word is a mild one to describe the bitter enmity of the Jews" (Knowling).
I was constrained (enankasthen). "I was compelled," first aorist passive indicative of anankazo, the very word used of Paul's efforts to get the Christians to blaspheme ( 26:11) which see. Paul was compelled to appeal to Caesar (see 25:11,12 for this phrase), unless Paul was willing to be the victim of Jewish hate when he had done no wrong.
Not that I had aught to accuse my nation of (ouch os tou ethnous mou echon t kategorein). This use of os with a participle (echon) is common in Greek for the alleged reason. The genitive case with the infinitive kategorein is regular. Paul says ethnos instead of laos as in 24:17; 26:4 .
20Did I intreat (parekalesa). Did I invite you.
Because of the hope of Israel (eineken tes elpidos tou Israel). Genitive with preposition eineken. The hope of the Messiah is his point as in 26:6.
I am bound with this chain (ten alusin tauten perikeima). This old verb means to lie around as in Lu 17:2; Heb 12:1 . But it is also used as the passive of peritithem, to place around with the accusative of peritithem retained. It is a transitive passive. Paul does not lie around the chain, but the chain lies around him, a curious reversal of the imagery (Robertson, Grammar, p. 815).
21Letters (grammata). Official documents from the Sanhedrin about the charges against Paul.
Any harm of thee (t per sou poneron).
Evil (poneron). The three aorists (edexametha, apengeilen, elalesen) cover the past. These Jews do not mean to say that they had never heard of Paul. It is hardly likely that they had heard of his appeal to Caesar, "for how could the news have reached Rome before Paul?" (Page).
22But we desire (axioumen de). Old verb axioo, to deem worthy, to think right or proper as in 15:38 which see. They think it only fair to hear Paul's side of his case.
Concerning this sect (per tes aireseos tautes). Paul had identified Christianity with Judaism (verse 20) in its Messianic hope. The language seems to imply that the number of Christians in Rome was comparatively small and mainly Gentile. If the edict of Claudius for the expulsion of the Jews from Rome (Ac 18:2 ) was due to disturbance over Christ (Chrestus), then even in Rome the Jews had special reason for hostility towards Christians.
Everywhere spoken against (pantachou antilegeta). Cf. verse 19. The line of cleavage between Jew and Christian was now sharply drawn everywhere.
23Appointed (taxameno). First aorist middle participle of tasso. Formal arrangement as in Mt 28:16 when Jesus appointed the mountain for his meeting in Galilee.
In great number (pleiones). Comparative of polus, "more than a few."
Expounded (exetitheto). Imperfect middle of ektithem, to set forth, as in 11:4; 18:26 . He did it with detail and care and spent all day at it, "from morning till evening" (apo pro eos esperas). In N.T. only here, 4:3 and Lu 24:29 , though common word.
Persuading them concerning Jesus (peithon autous per tou Iesou). Conative present active participle, trying to persuade. It was only about Jesus that he could make good his claim concerning the hope of Israel (verse 20). It was Paul's great opportunity. So he appealed both to Moses and to the prophets for proof as it was his custom to do.
24Some believed (o men epeithonto). Imperfect passive indicative of peitho. More exactly, "some began to be persuaded" (inchoative).
Some disbelieved (o de epistoun). Imperfect active of apisteo, to disbelieve, continued to disbelieve. It is usually so.
25When they agreed not (asumphono ontes). Old adjective, only here in N.T., double compound (a privative, sum, phone), without symphony, out of harmony, dissonant, discordant. It was a triumph to gain adherents at all in such an audience.
They departed (apeluonto). Imperfect middle (direct) indicative, "They loosed themselves from Paul." Graphic close.
After that Paul had spoken one word (eipontos tou Paulou rema en). Genitive absolute. One last word (like a preacher) after the all day exposition.
Well (kalos). Cf. Mt 14:7; Mr 7:6,9 (irony). Here strong indignation in the very position of the word (Page).
To your fathers (pros tous pateras umon). So Aleph A B instead of emon (our) like Stephen in 7:52 whose words Paul had heard. By mentioning the Holy Spirit Paul shows (Knowling) that they are resisting God ( 7:52).
26Say (eipon). Second aorist active imperative instead of the old form eipe. The quotation is from Isa 6:9,10 . This very passage is quoted by Jesus (Mt 13:14,15; Mr 4:12; Lu 8:10 ) in explanation of his use of parables and in Joh 12:40 the very point made by Paul here, "the disbelief of the Jews in Jesus" (Page). See on Matthew for discussion of the language used. Here the first time ("go to this people and say") does not occur in Matthew. It is a solemn dirge of the doom of the Jews for their rejection of the Messiah foreseen so long ago by Isaiah.
28This salvation (touto to soterion). Adjective from soter (Saviour), saving, bringing salvation. Common in the old Greek. The neuter as here often in LXX (as Ps 67:2 ) as substantive like soteria (cf. Lu 3:6 ).
They will also hear (auto ka akousonta). Auto as opposed to the rejection by the Jews, "vivid and antithetical" (Page).
30Two whole years (dietian olen). Only here in N.T. and 24:27 which see. During these busy years in Rome Paul wrote Philippians, Philemon, Colossians, Ephesians, Epistles that would immortalize any man, unless, forsooth, one or more of them was written from Ephesus or Caesarea, which has not yet been proven.
In his own hired dwelling (en idio misthomat). Old word, here only in N.T., that which is hired for a price (from misthoo and that from misthos, hire).
Received (apedecheto). Imperfect middle of apodechoma, received from time to time as they came, all that came (eisporeuomenous) from time to time.
Preaching (kerusson),
teaching (didaskon), the two things that concerned Paul most, doing both as if his right hand was not in chains, to the amazement of those in Rome and in Philippi (Php 1:12-14 ).
None forbidding him (akolutos). Old adverb from a privative and the verbal adjective kolutos (from koluo, to hinder), here only in the N.T. Page comments on "the rhythmic cadence of the concluding words." Page rejects the notion that the book is an unfinished work. It closes with the style of a concluded work. I agree with Harnack that Luke wrote the Acts during this period of two years in Rome and carried events no further because they had gone no further. Paul was still a prisoner in Rome when Luke completed the book. But he had carried Paul to "Rome, the capital of the world, Urbi et Orbi" (Page). The gospel of Christ has reached Rome. For the fate of Paul we must turn elsewhere. But Luke had the presence of Paul while he carried the Acts to its triumphant conclusion. Ramsay can give a good deal in proof of his claim that Luke is the greatest of all historians. Beyond a doubt his rank is high and the world can never repay its debt to this cultured physician who wrote the Gospel and the Acts.
THE EPISTLES OF PAUL
BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION
IMPORTANCE OF PAUL'S WORK
It is impossible to put too much emphasis on the life and work of Paul as the great interpreter of Christ. He has been misunderstood in modern times as he was during his career. Some accuse him of perverting the pure gospel of Christ about the Kingdom of God into a theological and ecclesiastical system. He has been accused of rabbinizing the gospel by carrying over his Pharisaism, while others denounce him for Hellenizing the gospel with Greek philosophy and the Greek mystery-religions. But out of all the welter of attacks Paul's Epistles stand as the marvellous expression of his own conception of Christ and the application of the gospel to the life of the Christians in the Graeco-Roman world in which they lived by eternal principles that apply to us today. In order to understand Paul's Epistles one must know the Acts of the Apostles in which Luke has drawn with graphic power the sudden change of the foremost opponent of Christ into the chief expounder and proclaimer of the gospel of the Risen Christ. The Acts and the Epistles supplement each other in a marvellous way, though chiefly in an incidental fashion. It is by no means certain that Luke had access to any of Paul's Epistles before he wrote the Acts, though that was quite possible for the early Epistles. It does not greatly matter for Luke had access to Paul himself both in Caesarea and in Rome. The best life of Paul one can get comes by combining the Acts with the Epistles if he knows how to do it. Paul is Luke's hero, but he has not overdrawn the picture in the Acts as is made clear by the Epistles themselves which reveal his own grasp and growth. The literature on Paul is vast and constantly growing. He possesses a fascination for students of the New Testament and of Christianity. It is impossible here to allude even to the most important in so vast a field. Conybeare and Howson's Life and Epistles of St. Paul still has value. Sir W. M. Ramsay has a small library on Paul and his Epistles. Stalker's masterful little book on Paul still grips men as does the work of Sabatier. Deissmann's St. Paul continues to throw light on the great Apostle to the Gentiles. Those who wish my own view at greater length will find them in my various books on Paul (Epochs in the Life of Paul, Paul the Interpreter of Christ, etc.).
THE REASON FOR HIS EPISTLES
In a real sense Paul's Epistles are tracts for the times, not for the age in general, but to meet real emergencies. He wrote to a particular church or group of churches or persons to meet immediate needs brought to his attention by messengers or letters. Dr. Deissmann contends strongly for the idea of calling Paul's Epistles "letters" rather than "Epistles." He gives a studied literary character to "epistles" as more or less artificial and written for the public eye rather than for definite effect. Four of Paul's Epistles are personal (those to Philemon, Titus, and Timothy) beyond a doubt, but in these which can properly be termed personal letters there are the principles of the gospel applied to personal, social, and ecclesiastical problems in such a pungent fashion that they possess permanent value. In the earliest group of Paul's Epistles, he reminds the Thessalonians of the official character of the Epistle which was meant for the church as a whole (1Th 5:27 ). He says also: "But if any one does not obey our word by the epistle, mark this one, not to associate with him, that he may be put to shame" (2Th 3:14 ). He calls attention to his signature as proof of the genuineness of every epistle (2Th 3:17 ). He gave directions for the public reading of his epistles (Col 4:16 ). He regarded them as the expression of God's will through the life of the churches and he put his whole heart into them. Two great controversies stirred Paul's life. That with the Judaizers called forth the great doctrinal group (I Corinthians, II Corinthians, Galatians, Romans). That with the Gnostics occasioned the Epistles to the Colossians and the Ephesians (Laodiceans) and this controversy ran on into the Pastoral Epistles. Each Epistle had its particular occasion which will be pointed out in due season. But even in the short ones like Philippians, Colossians and Ephesians Paul deals with the sublimest of all themes, the Person of Christ, with a masterfulness never equalled elsewhere. Even in I Corinthians, which deals so largely with church problems in Corinth, two great chapters rise to the heights of real eloquence (Chapter 1Co 13 on Love and Chapter 1Co 15 on the Resurrection). Romans, the greatest of his Epistles, has the fullest discussion of Paul's gospel of grace and Chapter 1Co 8 has a sweep of imagination and a grasp of faith unsurpassed. Hence, while denying to Paul the artificial rules of the rhetoricians attributed to him by Blass, I cannot agree that Paul's church Epistles are mere incidental letters. It is not a question whether Paul was writing for posterity or for the present emergency. He wrote for the present emergency in the most effective possible way. He brought the whole gospel message to bear upon the varied and pressing problems of the early Christians in the power of the Holy Spirit with the eloquence of a mind all ablaze with the truth and with a heart that yearned for their souls for Christ. They are not literary epistles, but they are more than personal letters. They are thunderbolts of passion and power that struck centre and that strike fire now for all who will take the trouble to come to them for the mind of Christ that is here.
DATES OF HIS EPISTLES
Unfortunately there is not complete agreement among scholars as to the dates of some of Paul's Epistles. Baur denied the Pauline authorship of all the Epistles save I and II Corinthians, Galatians, Romans. Today some deny that Paul wrote the Pastoral Epistles, though admitting the others. Some admit Pauline fragments even in the Pastoral Epistles, but more about this when these Epistles are reached. There is more doubt about the date of Galatians than any of the others. Lightfoot put it just before Romans, while Ramsay now makes it the earliest of all. The Epistle itself has no notes of place or time. The Epistles to the Thessalonians were written from Corinth after Timothy had been sent from Athens by Paul to Thessalonica (1Th 3:1f. ) and had just returned to Paul (1Th 3:6 ) which we know was in Corinth (Ac 18:5 ) shortly before Gallio came as Proconsul of Achaia (Ac 18:12 ). We can now feel certain from the new "acclamation" of Claudius in the inscription at Delphi recently explained by Deissmann in his St. Paul that the Thessalonian Epistles were written 50 to 51 A.D. We know also that he wrote I Corinthians while in Ephesus (1Co 16:8 ) and before pentecost, though the precise year is not given. But he spent three years at Ephesus in round numbers (Ac 19:8,10; 20:31 ) and he wrote just before he left, probably spring of A.D. 54 or 55. He wrote II Corinthians from Macedonia shortly after leaving Ephesus (2Co 2:12 ) ] apparently the same year. Romans was written from Corinth and sent by Phoebe of Cenchreae (Ro 16:1f. ) unless Ro 16 be considered a separate Epistle to Ephesus as some hold, a view that does not commend itself to me. Deissmann (New Testament in the Light of Modern Research, p. 33) accepts a modern theory that Ephesus was the place of the writing of the first prison Epistles (Philippians, Philemon, Colossians, Ephesians) as well as I Corinthians and Galatians and dates them all between A.D. 52 and 55. But we shall find that these prison Epistles most naturally fall to Rome between A.D. 61 and 63. If the Pastoral Epistles are genuine, as I hold, they come between A.D. 65 and 68. Bartlet argues for a date before A.D. 64, accepting the view that Paul was put to death then. But it is still far more probable that Paul met his death in Rome in A.D. 68 shortly before Nero's death which was June 8, A.D. 68. It will thus be seen that the dates of several of the Epistles are fairly clear, while some remain quite uncertain. In a broad outlook they must all come between A.D. 50 and 68.
FOUR GROUPS OF PAULINE EPISTLES
I. First Thessalonians. | Second Thessalonians. | A.D. 50 to 51.
Chief topic Eschatology. To correct misconceptions in Thessalonica.
II. First Corinthians. | Second Corinthians | Galatians | A.D. 54 to 57. Romans. |
Chief topic Justification by Faith. Defence against the Judaizers.
III. Philippians. | Philemon. | Colossians. | A.D. 61 to 63. Ephesians (Laodiceans).
Chief topic Christology. Defence against the Gnostic perversions of the Person of Christ.
IV. First Timothy. | Titus. | A.D. 65 to 68. Second Timothy. |
Ecclesiastical Problems to the fore.
DEVELOPMENT IN PAUL'S THEOLOGY
The study of Paul's Epistles in the order of their writing is the best possible way of seeing his own growth as a theologian and interpreter of Christ. Sabatier long ago laid emphasis on this point in his book The Apostle Paul as did Matheson in The Spiritual Development of Paul. It is a tragedy to have to read Paul's Epistles as printed in the usual Greek text of Westcott and Hort and the English translations, beginning with Romans and ending with Philemon. In the manuscripts that give Paul's Epistles Romans comes first as the largest and most important, but Titus and Philemon come after II Timothy (the last just before his death). We know something of Paul's early preaching how he laid emphasis on the Messiahship of Jesus proven by his resurrection, Paul himself having seen the Risen Christ (Ac 9:22 ). This conviction and experience lay at the foundation of all his work and he never faltered concerning it (Ac 17:3 ). In the earliest sermon of which we have a full report Paul proclaims justification by faith in Christ with forgiveness of sins (Ac 13:38f. ), blessings not obtained by the law of Moses. In the unfolding life of Paul he grappled with great problems of Jewish rabbinism and Greek philosophy and mystery-religions and Paul himself grew in stature as he courageously and victoriously faced Judaizer and Gnostic. There are scholars who claim that Paul surrendered to the appeal of Gnostic sacramentarianism and so went back on his great doctrine of justification by faith, not by works. It will be shown at the proper time that this view misinterprets Paul's attitude. The events given by Luke in the Acts fit in with the self-revelation of Paul in his own Epistles as we read them. Each one of the four groups of Epistles has a slightly different style and vocabulary as is natural when one comes to think of it. The same thing is true of the plays of Shakespeare and the poems of Milton. Style is the man, Buffon says. Yes, but style is also a function of the subject. Particularly is this true of vocabulary which has to vary with the different topics treated. But style in the same man varies with different ages. Ripened old age mellows the exuberance of youth and the passionate vehemence of manhood. We shall see Paul himself in his Epistles, letting himself go in various ways and in different moods. But in all the changing phases of his life and work there is the same masterful man who glories in being the slave of Jesus Christ and the Apostle to the Gentiles. The passion of Paul is Christ and one can feel the throb of the heart of the chief of sinners who became the chief of saints in all his Epistles. There is the Pauline glow and glory in them all.
SOME BOOKS ON THE PAULINE EPISTLES
Bate, As a Whole Guide to the Epistles of St. Paul (1927). Bonnet-Schroeder, Epitres de Paul (4 ed. 1912). Champlain, The Epistles of Paul (1906). Clemen, Einheitlichkeit d . paul. Briefe (1894). Conybeare and Howson, Life and Epistles of St. Paul. Drummond, The Epistles of Paul the Apostle (1899). Hayes, Paul and His Epistles (1915). Heinrici, Die Forschungen uber die paul. Briefe (1886). Lake, The Earlier Epistles of St. Paul (1915). Lewin, Life and Epistles of St. Paul. (1875). Neil, The Pauline Epistles (1906). Scott, The Pauline Epistles (1909). Shaw, The Pauline Epistles (1903). Vischer, Die Paulusbriefe (1910). Voelter, Die Composition der paul. Haupt Briefe (1890). Voelter, Paulus und seine Briefe (1905). Way, The Letters of Paul to Seven Churches and Three Friends (1906) Weinel, Die Echtheit der paul. Hauptbriefe (1920). Weiss, B., Present Status of the Inquiry Concerning the Genuineness of the Pauline Epistles (1901). Weiss, B., Die Paulinische Briefe (1902). Wood, Life, Letters, and Religion of St. Paul (1925).
THE EPISTLE TO THE ROMANS
SPRING OF A.D. 57
BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION
INTEGRITY OF THE EPISTLE
The genuineness of the Epistle is so generally admitted by scholars that it is unnecessary to prove it here, for Loman, Steck, and the Dutch scholars (Van Manen, etc.) who deny it as Pauline are no longer taken seriously. He wrote it from Corinth because he sent it to Rome by Phoebe of Cenchreae (Ro 16:2 ) if chapter 16 is acknowledged to be a part of the Epistle. Chapter 16 is held by some to be really a short epistle to Ephesus because of the long list of names in it, because of Paul's long stay in Ephesus, because he had not yet been to Rome, and because, in particular, Aquila and Priscilla are named (Ro 16:3-5 ) who had been with Paul in Ephesus. But they had come from Rome before going to Corinth and there is no reason for thinking that they did not return to Rome. It was quite possible for Paul to have many friends in Rome whom he had met elsewhere. People naturally drifted to Rome from all over the empire. The old MSS. (Aleph A B C D) give chapter 16 as an integral part of the Epistle. Marcion rejected it and chapter 15 also for reasons of his own. Renan's theory that Romans was a circular letter like Ephesians sent in different forms to different churches (Rome, Ephesus, Thessalonica, etc.) has appealed to some scholars as explaining the several doxologies in the Epistle, but they cause no real difficulty since Paul interjected them in his other epistles according to his moods (2Co 1:20 , for instance). That theory raises more problems than it solves as, for example, Paul's remarks about going to Rome (Ro 1:9-16 ) which apply to Rome. Lightfoot suggests the possibility that Paul added Ro 16:25-27 some years after the original date so as to turn it into a circular letter. But the MSS. do not support that theory and that leaves Ro 15:22-33 in the Epistle quite unsuitable to a circular letter. Modern knowledge leaves the Epistle intact with occasional variations in the MSS. on particular points as is true of all the N.T.
THE TIME AND PLACE
The place is settled if we accept Ro 16:1 . The time of the year is in the spring if we combine statements in the Acts and the Epistle. He says: "I am now going to Jerusalem ministering to the saints" (Ro 15:25 ). In Ac 20:3 we read that Paul spent three months in Corinth. In II Corinthians we have a full account of the collection for the poor saints in Jerusalem. The account of the journey from Corinth to Jerusalem is given in Ac 20:3-21:17 . It was in the spring between passover at Philippi (Ac 20:6 ) and pentecost in Jerusalem (20:16; 21:17 ). The precise year is not quite so certain, but we may suggest A.D. 57 or 58 with reasonable confidence.
THE PURPOSE
Paul tells this himself. He had long cherished a desire to come to Rome (Ac 19:21 ) and had often made his plans to do so (Ro 1:13 ) which were interrupted (Ro 15:22 ), but now he definitely plans to go from Jerusalem, after taking the contribution there (Ro 15:26 ), to Rome and then on to Spain (Ro 15:24,28 ). Meanwhile he sends this Epistle that the Romans may know what Paul's gospel really is (Ro 1:15; 2:16 ). He is full of the issues raised by the Judaizing controversy as set forth in the Epistles to Corinth and to Galatia. So in a calmer mood and more at length he presents his conception of the Righteousness demanded by God (Ro 1:17 ) of both Gentile (Ro 1:18-32 ) and Jew (Ro 2:1-3:20 ) and only to be obtained by faith in Christ who by his atoning death (justification) has made it possible (Ro 3:21-5:21 ). This new life of faith in Christ should lead to holiness of life (sanctification, chapters Ro 6-8 ). This is Paul's gospel and the remaining chapters deal with corollaries growing out of the doctrine of grace as applied to practical matters. It is a cause for gratitude that Paul did write out so full a statement of his message. He had a message for the whole world and was anxious to win the Roman Empire to Christ. It was important that he go to Rome for it was the centre of the world's life. Nowhere does Paul's Christian statesmanship show to better advantage than in this greatest of his Epistles. It is not a book of formal theology though Paul is the greatest of theologians. Here Paul is seen in the plenitude of his powers with all the wealth of his knowledge of Christ and his rich experience in mission work. The church in Rome is plainly composed of both Jews and Greeks, though who started the work there we have no way of knowing. Paul's ambition was to preach where no one else had been (Ro 15:20 ), but he has no hesitation in going on to Rome.
COMMENTARIES
No one of Paul's Epistles has more helpful modern commentaries on it than this one, such as those by Barth (1919), Beet (9th ed., 1901), Cook (1930), Denney (1901), Feine (1903), Garvie (1901), Gifford (1881), Godet (Tr., 1883), Gore (Expos.), Grey (1910), Griffith-Thomas (1913), Hodge (1856), Hort (Intr., 1895), Jowett (3rd ed., 1894), Julicher (2 Aufl., 1907), Kuhl (1913), Lagrange (1916), Lard (1875), Liddon (Anal., 1893), Lietzmann (2 Aufl., 1919), Lightfoot (chapters 1-7, 1895), Luetgert (1913), Monk (1893), Plummer, Richter (1908), Sanday and Headlam (1895), Shedd (1893), Stifler (1897), Vaughan (1890), Weiss, B. (Meyer Komm., g Aufl., 1899), Westcott, F. B. (1913), Zahn (1910).
Romans 1